| Shinto |
A Sino-Japanese term meaning simply "gods" or "spirits" (shin/kami) or the way, conduct, power or deeds of the kami. In China the term shen-tao written with the same characters as Shinto referred to spirits and spirit-worship, especially non-Buddhist rites; for example it could mean Taoism. In medieval times in Japan Shinto was understood as part of the Buddhist world and seems to have meant 'matters pertaining to kami'; localised spirits, as found in most Buddhist cultures. "Shinto" is not a term used or understood much in ordinary speech in Japan and the meaning of the term has varied in different periods of Japanese history. There is little consensus on the meaning of Shinto in books by Western or Japanese scholars and in fact the term "Shinto" has taken on a rather misleading aura of solidity and concreteness in Western writings that it has not enjoyed in Japan. This dictionary is a good example of the reification of Shinto, forming as it does part of a series on "religions" such as Buddhism, Sikhism, Hinduism, Islam etc.! The typical English translation of Shinto as 'The Way of the Kami' reads too much significance into the "-to" (tao, way) element, which is almost redundant in Japanese. Some scholars suggest we talk about types of Shinto such as popular Shinto, folk Shinto, domestic Shinto, sectarian Shinto, imperial household Shinto, shrine Shinto, state Shinto, new Shinto religions, etc. rather than regard Shinto as a single entity. This approach can be helpful but begs the question of what is meant by "Shinto" in each case, particularly since each category incorporates or has incorporated Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, folk religious and other elements. The same issues arise in understanding "schools" or lineages of Shinto such as fukko shinto, watarai shinto, ryobu shinto, suiga shinto, yui-itsu shinto, yoshikawa shinto etc.. In each case the term "Shinto" has to be understood differently. Since the eighteenth century the word "Shinto" has increasingly been used by its proponents (such as representatives of kokugaku and modern Shinto theologians) to mean an ancient, pure and enduring Japanese national tradition or expression of the national "spirit" which predated the introduction of Buddhism, was temporarily subsumed under Buddhism (for 1300 years...) and was revived in the period when it was "separated" from Buddhism (shinbutsu bunri) The idea of such a tradition however originated in the activities of the scholars of the late Tokugawa period and was first propagated widely as part of the system of emperor-worship which underpinned Japanese nationalism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, hence its wide currency today. It assumes that ancient pre-Buddhist Japanese religion was "Shinto" to which we can somehow "return" (see Fukko-Shinto) Many elements of modern Shinto certainly have archaic or archaic-seeming roots whose resonances can be appreciated and consciously celebrated, but the view that Shinto as we know it now somehow predates Chinese and other continental influences can be maintained only by ignoring the facts of Japanese religious life before shinbutsu bunri in 1868, and indeed the overwhelmingly syncretic or combinatory approach of ordinary Japanese people in religious matters manifested again since the advent of religious freedom in 1945. The term "Shinto" should therefore be approached with caution. (In this it resembles most other abstract terms such as "Buddhism", "democracy", "Christianity" etc.!) See also the Introduction to this dictionary |
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| Shinto Directive |
The Shinto Directive (in Japanese translation shinto shirei) was a short document produced, under the direction of the American William K.Bunce, by the Religions Division of the Civil Information and Education Section, Supreme Commander of Allied Powers (SCAP) on 15 December 1945. On behalf of the occupation forces it prohibited in any publicly-funded or government institution not only Shinto doctrines and practices but also the "militaristic and ultranationalistic ideology" of any religion or creed which asserted the superiority of the Emperor or the people of Japan (see Kokka Shinto) As a result of the various provisions of the Directive Shinto was placed on the same footing as Sect Shinto or any other religion 'in so far as it may in fact be the philosophy or religion of Japanese individuals'. The Honcho was set up in response to this directive in order to reconstitute the national network of shrines on a voluntary basis. See also of Japan, Hojin Ho |
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| Shinto Gobusho |
"The Five Shinto Scriptures'. The name given in the late seventeenth century by Deguchi, Nobuyoshi to a collection of thirteenth-century texts of Watarai (or Ise) Five scriptures purporting to be ancient secret works restricted to members of the Watarai family aged over sixty had been produced at that time to show that the Ise outer shrine (Watarai) lineage had a scriptural canon equivalent to that of the Confucians and Buddhists. The first volume "yamato-hime-seiki" for example explains that Great Japan is a divine land, that the safety of the land depends on the assistance of the kami, that the spiritual power of the kami is augmented when the state shows reverence, etc.. The texts were influential in the development of various views of Shinto as a way of life for ordinary people (see e.g. Yoshida, Kanetomo, Suiga shinto, Hayashi, Razan) The existence of this work stimulated no Azumamaro (1669—1736) to conduct investigations into the ancient Japanese classics; researches which led to the development of the movement |
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| Shinto kaiga |
Shinto paintings. Shinto seems originally to have been aniconic, the kami having no fixed forms around which iconography could develop. Iconic representations including paintings and statues (see Shinzo) appeared as a result of Buddhist influence and largely represent the combinatory tradition (shinbutsu shugo) which locates the kami within a Buddhist world-view. Paintings include portraits of deified humans such as Sugawara, Michizane (tenjin) and kami in a variety of forms such as old men, women, Buddhist priests and children. Pictures of kami as human-like figures are also found in post-Meiji popular Shinto art such as scroll paintings. In some cases paintings have become Shrines were classically depicted in two ways. The paintings known as suika-ga are essentially landscapes which show shrines as the beautiful dwelling-places of local kami. Probably the best-known example is a painting of the Nachi waterfall at Kumano. In a different category of art are the -ga (or suijaku-ga) which are mandara (mandalas) replete with symbolism depicting the shrine-temple complexes as Buddhist "pure lands" peopled with and Outstanding examples of such paintings are preserved from the Kasuga, Ise, Sanno (Hie) Atsuta, Kitano, Kumano and other shrine complexes |
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| Shinto scholarship |
For early scholarship on Shinto see Kokugaku. The academic study of Shinto in the 20th century has been carried out mainly by Shinto theologians, often priests, affiliated to Shinto training institutions such as Kokugakuin or Kogakkan universities in Japan. Before 1945 they were official ideologues for the emperor-system, promoting Shinto ideas which clarified the relationship of the emperor to the people, and of Japan to its colonies and the rest of the world. In the postwar period their role has largely been to promote a positive image of Shinto as something different in character from prewar "state Shinto' while at the same time retaining the idea that Shinto has a special and coherent role in Japanese society. This has involved stressing the vague or "hidden" nature of Shinto spirituality, its undogmatic and benign character, its love of nature, its beautiful shrines and enjoyable festivals, its immeasurable antiquity as a component of "Japaneseness" and its difference from Buddhism. The shock of disestablishment and the discrediting of pre-1945 Shinto thought meant that there was for some decades after the war little significant international academic interest in Shinto compared with the study of Buddhism and Japanese new religions. With economic ascendancy, diminishing memories of the second world war and widespread popular interest in "Japaneseness" there has been renewed political and academic interest in Shinto in Japan and overseas since the 1980's. In contrast to the predominantly theological views which characterised Shinto studies in the past, recent historical and critical studies of Shinto have aimed to deconstruct the notion of Shinto as an ancient and indigenous Japanese "Way" by analysing the meaning of the term "Shinto" in different periods, stressing the importance of Buddhism as the dominant religious strand throughout recorded Japanese religious history, approaching pre-Buddhist Japanese religion without the presumption that it was "Shinto" and giving proper attention to the interaction between "Shinto" elements and Confucianism, Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism, modern secular ideologies and the multitude of dissenting and sectarian Japanese traditions most of which predate Shinto as it is currently understood and practised. |
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| Shinto shirei |
Japanese term for the Directive |
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| Shinto Shuseiha |
'Shinto Cultivation Group'. An association founded in 1873 by Nitta, Kuniteru (1829— 1902) for the purpose of worshipping Amaterasu, the kami of heaven, and the kami of earth, the triad who figure in the account of creation. The teachings reflected a strongly Neo-Confucian outlook, emphasising spiritual and mental cultivation in accordance with the Five Relationships in order to make a positive contribution in the world. It was recognised as a sect immediately following the new legislation of 1876. See Shinto |
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| Shinto Taikyo |
"Great Teaching of Shinto'. One of the thirteen groups of 'sect Shinto' (kyoha shinto) An organisation with no single founder, it was established in 1873 by pro-Shinto administrators as the 'Temple of the Great Teaching' (Taikyo-in) to organise the missionary activities of the 'Great Promulgation Campaign' (taikyo senpu undo) As a result of internal disagreements the Taikyo-in was dissolved and replaced by the 'Office of Shinto', Shinto jimukyoku. After the official separation of religion and politics (seikyo bunri) of 1882 this office was renamed 'Shinto honkyoku' (Chief Office of Shinto) and recognised as a sect by the Home Ministry in 1886. It fostered the basic principles of the emperor system up to 1945 under the leadership of a series of kancho (presidents) the sixth of whom changed the name to Shinto Taikyo to emphasise the sect's nongovernmental status. Its teachings focus on the first three kami in the account of the origin of the world |
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| Shinto Taikyo |
Ame-no-Minakanushi-no-kami, Takami- musubi -no-kami and Kami-musubi-no-kami, as well as Amaterasu, Izanagi and Izanami, and the The teachings of the sect are closely aligned with the major features of shinto They include an emphasis on the eternal bond between Shinto and Japan, purification (harae) the closeness of kami and humans, festivals and enshrinement of the dead. After the second world war Shinto Taikyo reformed its teachings to emphasise a way of peace founded on respect for the emperor in place of the more overt nationalism of prewar days, and looks back to the Meiji period when the 'Japanese spirit" flourished. It was recognised as a hojin in 1951. In deference to its origins Shinto Taikyo is regarded as the representative of all the sect Shinto groups |
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| Shinto taisei-kyo |
'Accomplishment of the Way of the Kami'. A religious group founded by Hirayama, Seisai or Shosai (1815—1890) a high-ranking member of the last Tokugawa government. He arrived in Edo at the age of twenty and studied Chinese and After the collapse of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 he turned to ascetic religious practices including standing under a cold waterfall. Shinto taisei-kyo advocated service to the nation and conduct pleasing to the kami, and was recognised as a Shinto sect in 1882. See Shinto |
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| Shintoku |
Divine virtue. The particular influence exerted by a kami. Generally speaking it means the benefits people pray to the kami for, such as business prosperity, recovery from illness or traffic safety. Parents and students seek the assistance of Sugawara, Michizane (Tenjin) for educational success at numerous shrines, while the taisha in Shimane prefecture is visited almost constantly by young couples because the deity there helps cement marriages. Though the basis for a shintoku ascribed to a particular kami may sometimes be found in ancient texts, in practice there are variations and inconsistencies in the powers which a particular named kami was or is believed to possess since these depend on the time and context of the kami's enshrinement and the particular views of those who enshrined the kami |
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| Shinza |
The kami-seat. An object or place into which the kami enters. The term is used for the tatami throne or couch used in the |
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| Shinzen kekkon |
"A wedding before the kami'. A Shinto wedding. Shinto weddings involving a shrine priest or shrine visit are a relatively recent tradition. Buddhism has never regarded marriage as a religious sacrament and Japanese marriage ceremonies were traditionally performed in the home. The custom of involving a shrine priest spread in the period with the permeation of official 'state shinto' (kokka shinto) into civic life. Some weddings are still held as in the past in large country houses before the or senzodan (ancestor-shelf) without priestly involvement. In contemporary Japan most weddings (about 63%) are Shinto-style, while about 30% are Christian-style (some are Christian and Shinto, in sequence) while 2% are Buddhist and the rest secular or perhaps according to the rites of one of the new religions if the families are members. Most weddings are held in commercial wedding halls, hotels or at shrines, some of which now have a gishiki-den specially built for wedding ceremonies. The modern Shinto-type ceremony is based on the wedding in 1900 of the crown prince who became the Taisho emperor, the first wedding to be held in a Shinto shrine. Wedding ceremonies symbolise a transition into the married state. The traditional and largely Confucian values underpinning the lifetime marriage relationship, which is regarded as a very serious commitment between two families rather than, or as well as, a matter for two individuals, have evolved in Japan independently of sectarian religious affiliations. In a classical tract on the duties of women, the Onna Daigaku ('Great Learning' for women) the 17th century moralist Kaibara, Ekken set out the traditional orthodoxy, emphasising the duty of submission of the new wife as she "returned" to live in the home her husband's parents. Some of the new religions today emphasise a very "traditional" view of marriage, placing responsibility for the success of the union almost entirely on the wife. The commitment between families is symbolised in the central act of a Japanese wedding, the sharing of cups of between the bride and groom and afterwards between each of them and the other's parents. The two families then drink together. Other more "Western" rites such as an exchange of rings and the reading of marriage vows (but by the groom only) may be performed. Weddings are held on auspicious days determined by calendrical calculations deriving from popular Taoism. They offer a chance for families to assert their status and aspirations for the newly married couple through displays of wealth (the average marriage in Japan costs about Ј50,000) so the provision of impressive weddings is an important source of income for Shinto and some Christian institutions in Japan |
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| Shinzo |
Kami-statues. Shinzo (divine images) can also mean paintings of kami (see Shinto kaiga) Statues of kami developed as a result of Buddhist influences—there is no evidence of kami being represented in statues before the introduction of Buddhist iconography from China. The earliest examples are late ninth century statues from the period preserved in the shrine of Hachiman connected with the Yakushi temple at Nara. These show Hachiman as a Buddhist priest, the empress Jingo as a kami and another female kami Nakatsuhime. Other famous examples from the ninth century are the male and female kami statues preserved in the Matsuno shrine in Kyoto. There was however no development of an independent tradition of "Shinto" sculpture; statues were principally a means of expressing the identity of Buddhas and kami (see Shinbutsu shugo) and the noteworthy artistic developments took place within shinto Such statues became a popular form of A few of these Buddhist/Shinto statues escaped burning in the bunri of 1868—72 and remain as shintai in shrines, the justification being that they were always "Shinto" images. Some statues have been commissioned since the restoration to act as shintai or to adorn shrines |
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| Shiogama jinja |
A shrine in Miyagi dedicated to the kami of fishermen and of salt extraction, Shio-tsuchi-no-oji-no-kami. It hosts the Minami-matsuri on July 11th, in which a travels round Matsushima bay on a boat |
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| Shirakawa clan |
The Shirakawa house was authorised in 1665 to rank all shrines linked directly to the imperial house, normally on the basis of antiquity, lineage and payments from the shrine priest wishing to raise the status of his shrine. See seido |
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| Shiroki |
"Dark (kuro) sake'. "Ki" is the old name for and sake is known on ritual occasions as (o) mi-ki. Shiroki and kuroki (light and dark sake) are special kinds of sake offered as at the niinamesai (autumn festival) including those occasions when the niinamesai is a or accession ceremony for the new emperor. Dark and light sake have also traditionally been interpreted as refined and unrefined sake, however instructions for making these offerings are found in the Engi-Shiki, where light sake is natural sake and dark sake is made by mixing ashes of kusagi |
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| Shishi |
'Lion'. For the Japanese the lion was a semi-mythical animal, known only through Chinese-Korean culture and particularly in the lion dance, See also |
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| Shishi-mai |
Lion dance. Also shishi-odori, lion dance or deer dance. In Japan there are several versions of the "Chinese lion' dance which is found throughout the far east, although sometimes in Japan the "lion" masks have horns like deer (shika) and there is another Chinese character pronounced shishi which means beast, deer or wild boar, so shika-odori or shishi-odori both mean 'deer-dance'. Shishi-mai may also feature tigers (tora) as at the autumn festival of the Shirotori jinja, Kagawa on October 6—8, the matsuri of Osaki jinja, Miyagi on April 29th or the Uraga-no-tora-odori at the Tametomo jinja, Kanagawa, on the second Saturday in June. In some cases the animal may be the mythical kirin beast, who dances at the Kurata Hachiman-gu, Tottori, on April 15. A typical lion costume is green and white and occupied by one to three performers, the front one holding the wooden head, though the head of the shishi at the Kamuro jinja autumn festival in Kagawa is so large that it takes 5—6 men to carry it. Generally the shishi-mai is a dance to cast out or frighten away evil incursors and is therefore held especially at new year when a new start is made, and during the spring and summer to scare pests and wild animals (though not lions, since there have never been any in Japan) away from crops. In a modern derivative of this custom village men wearing lion-heads run from house to house scaring away evil spirits in return for a drink. At the natsu (summer) of the Iku-tama jinja in Osaka the shishi-mai involves 350 performers. Other noteworthy performances are on Aug 26 at the Mitsumine Jinja at the summit of Mt. Mitsumine, Saitama-ken, on April 17th during the Mai-age-sai (whirling-up festival) of the Ae-kuni jinja, Mie-ken, and at the annual festival of the Taisha on May 14th. There is a dance similar to the shishi-mai called the tatsu-gashira-mai (dragon's head dance) A dragon-dance of this kind called tatsu-ko is performed at the Nangu jinja, Gifu, at the shrine's annual festival on May 5th. In Ehime prefecture the "shishi-odori" clearly means 'deer dance" and has a different character from lion dances. In a graceful ceremony dating from the seventeenth century a dance of eight deer (yatsushishi-odori) is performed at the Uwatsuhiko jinja, Uwajima-shi in Ehime on October 29 in which youths dressed as deer beat small drums (kodaiko) and dance as they search for female deer |
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| Shishi-odori |
It can mean lion dance or deer dance. See under |
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